In this revealing analysis, Robert Rabil explores the evolution of Iraq’s opposition movements—from isolated factions like the Da’wa Party, Communists, Kurds, and Arab nationalists to a more unified front emerging after the Gulf War and 9/11. Drawing on Iraqi internal documents, he shows how state repression and factional rivalry stymied early efforts before international pressure and regime change ambitions prompted greater cooperation. Rabil details the transition from fragmentation to joint planning around federalism and regime change. The piece offers rare insight into the complexities of opposition politics in Saddam-era Iraq and the challenges of forging cohesion under external and internal constraints.